The Roman units before battling

The legionaries fought in blocks of sub-units, the basic block apparently a pair of centuries (the "maniple"), the sub units drawn up in three distinct lines. As the first line advanced to the attack the front few ranks threw pila- javelins with long iron shanks, which bent or broke from the shaft on impact and could not be thrown back. They then closed with the enemy in tight ranks, semi-crouching, left shoulders braced against their shields, protected against downward blows by their helmets and mailed shoulders, on their blind side and against spear thrusts by their shields - which could also be used to hit and shove. Their enemies typically used slashing weapons of soft iron; the legionary stabbed upwards round the edge of his shield with the point of his short Spanish- style gladius sword (though its edge was also deadly - we read of severed arms and heads).

Legionaries were drilled to change their frontage in battle as events dictated, with rear sub-units moving out and forward to double the line; or contracting the line by falling back and inwards into deeper blocks. Most critically, however, they were trained to relieve one another after a few moments' fighting, by ranks within the maniple and by units. At the signal - presumably a trumpet call - the units engaged would temporarily contract or open up lanes in their frontage,the next line pressing forward between them: exact details are unknown, but the effect was certainly that tired men fell back and fresh men stepped forward into their places. This manoeuvre alone requiring impressive discipline,confidence and timing when in hand-to-hand combat multiplied their effective strength, against a compacted enemy mass whose (rapidly tiring) front edge alone could actually bring weapons to bear.

Here a unit of Julius Caesar's army fight off a Gallic sortie against their siege works. The front rank tires; a centurion shouts for relief, and the next rank move up to throw javelins over their comrades' heads, to win a moment's respite for the change-over. Evidence for the equipment of Julian period legionaries is very scarce; it suggests an evolved combination of Graeco-Etruscan and Celtic styles. Celtic-style ringmail shirts had doubled shoulder reinforcements, sometimes decorated in Greek fashion; plumed bronze helmets were of so-called "Montefortino" shape, tall-domed with shortneckguards and large cheekguards; the big plywood Scutum shield, with a central spine and boss, was of "wrap around" oval shape; the gladius had a broad-shouldered blade with a long tapering point.Traditionally, legionaries are depicted in red tunics; in fact, recent analysis of the sparse evidence strongly suggests that white was the usual colour.In 31 BC his kinsman Octavianus emerged as unchallenged victor of the long civil wars which followed the assassination of the dictator Julius Caesar; and in 27 BC he took the title Augustus, becoming in fact if not in name the first emperor.